Cases5 cases

1 to 5 of 5

1. IL-0302 Peak load on GitHub's mysql1 MySQL cluster maxed out its database proxy's connections and stopped writes in March 2022

   GitHub2022

   Symptoms

   On March 16, 2022 at 14:09 UTC, write operations across GitHub stopped working, including git operations, webhooks, pull requests, API requests, issues, GitHub Packages, GitHub Codespaces, GitHub Actions and GitHub Pages. Under peak-hour load, the database proxy in front of the shared mysql1 MySQL database had reached its maximum number of connections.

   Writes rejectedDatabase overloadHigh error rateFailover failure

   Trigger

   Increased load on mysql1 during peak hours, combined with poor query performance in specific circumstances, pushed the database proxy to its maximum number of connections.

   Root cause

   Capacity exhaustion

   Component

   DatabaseDatabase proxy and connection pooler

   Contributing factor

   Inefficient queryChange during peak hoursHarmful manual actionExcessive blast radius

   Remediation

   • Failed over mysql1 to a healthy replica on March 16
   • Reset the application connections to the new primary on March 17
   • Added an index that fixed the main query performance problem
   • Performed a primary failover on March 22
   • Performed a primary failover on March 23
   • Throttled webhook traffic to reduce load

   Action items

   • Keep throttling webhook traffic at peak load times
   • Audit the load patterns of mysql1 during peak hours and make performance fixes based on the audits
   • Move traffic to other databases to reduce load and speed up failover
   • Review change management, particularly monitoring and changes during high load in production
   • Shard the databases and scale up hardware

   View case
2. IL-0240 Cloudflare API requests failed and the dashboard slowed for hours after the authentication database lost its replicas

   Cloudflare2020

   Symptoms

   On 2 November 2020 the Cloudflare API and dashboard were degraded for six hours and 33 minutes. The success rate of API queries dropped at times to 75%, and the dashboard was up to 80 times slower than normal, while Cloudflare's edge network kept working.

   High error rateHigh latencyDatabase overloadWrites rejectedPacket loss

   Trigger

   At 14:43 UTC a network switch in a control plane data center partly failed: it kept LACP and BGP running but stopped forwarding some packets, and it recovered on its own six minutes later.

   Root cause

   DNS or network fault

   Component

   NIC, cable and switch port linkCoordination and key-value storeDatabase failover managerDatabaseDatabase replication

   Contributing factor

   Automation amplificationNo headroomHarmful manual action

   Detection

   At 14:43 UTC alerts fired because the misbehaving switch was unreachable to pings. Engineers then saw that the primary authentication database was overwhelmed.

   Remediation

   • Shed load from the primary authentication database by slowing SSL certificate pushes to the edge, emails and other features
   • Moved API traffic that could use read replicas to the secondary data center by hand
   • Sent authentication calls fully back to the primary data center when the dashboard got worse
   • Rebuilt the first database replica, which put itself back into service at 21:20 UTC and returned performance to normal
   • Ramped the turned-down services back up so asynchronous processing could catch up

   Action items

   • Remove the cluster management limitation that requires rebuilding all replicas after a primary is promoted
   • Redesign the user sessions system so dashboard traffic can be steered between data centers
   • Change the auto-remediation configuration so a database replica is not promoted so quickly
   • Tune each system involved to be more resilient to failures of its dependencies

   Lessons

   Every system in the chain had redundancy and none failed completely; each only degraded, which made the chain of events much harder to model and foresee. Automating replica promotion so that it could trigger on a minute's notice had been a point of pride, but for at least one database a fast promotion can do more harm than the failure it answers. Most general-purpose cluster managers use Raft or Paxos rather than Byzantine fault tolerant protocols, accepting a rare failure mode in exchange for a protocol that is simpler to implement correctly and debug.

   View case
3. IL-0323 A RAID battery backup unit failure crashed db1075, the MariaDB primary of section s3, and every s3 wiki went read-only

   Wikimedia Foundation2019

   Symptoms

   At 18:40 UTC db1075, the primary database of section s3, stopped answering, and all s3 wikis went read-only because no writes could reach it. Reads kept working from the replicas. At 18:42:45 Icinga reported "PROBLEM - Host db1075 is DOWN: PING CRITICAL - Packet loss = 100%".

   Writes rejectedReplication lagHigh latency

   Trigger

   The RAID battery backup unit (BBU) of db1075, the s3 primary database host, failed and the whole host crashed.

   Root cause

   Hardware failure

   Component

   DatabaseDatabase replication

   Contributing factor

   Pages not deliveredHarmful manual action

   Detection

   Icinga reported db1075 HOST DOWN on IRC at 18:42:45, but that alert does not page; replica Slave IO alerts followed, users reported problems on #wikimedia-operations, and the first SMS page went out at 18:56. Volunteers and staff noticed the failure before the alerts did.

   Remediation

   • Power-cycled db1075 from the iDRAC after finding the BBU problem
   • Let MySQL finish InnoDB recovery on db1075
   • Removed read_only=ON from db1075 by hand
   • Ran puppet by hand a second time so pt-heartbeat started

   Action items

   • Implement or refactor a script that moves replicas when the primary is unavailable
   • Fix the MediaWiki heartbeat model so pt-heartbeat does not use a super-user, avoids a single point of failure and follows the real primary without depending on puppet
   • Decide what to do with the batch of hosts that already had BBU issues
   • Buy a new BBU for db1075
   • Remove db1075 from the primary role
   • Address MediaWiki spam while the database is read-only or the primary is unavailable
   • Make primary database hosts page on HOST DOWN
   • Track hardware errors better in Netbox

   Lessons

   A BBU failure should not crash a whole host, yet it had happened before on HP hosts. HOST DOWN on a primary database should page instead of only alerting on IRC. Starting pt-heartbeat through puppet races with MySQL startup, and the unnoticed failure kept lag reported and made the outage 8 minutes longer.

   View case
4. IL-0241 A database shard could not elect a new primary, and the Stripe API failed most requests in two periods on one day

   Stripe2019

   Symptoms

   On 10 July 2019 the Stripe API failed a substantial majority of requests twice, from 16:35 to 17:02 UTC and from 21:14 to 22:47 UTC. In the first period automated monitoring detected within a minute that a database cluster had failed to elect a new primary.

   High error rateFailover failureWrites rejectedIntermittent timeoutsSustained high node CPU

   Trigger

   The primary node of a database cluster failed at 16:35 UTC while one shard had several stalled nodes. The second period was set off by rolling the election protocol back to the previous minor version at 20:42 UTC.

   Root cause

   Software defect

   Component

   DatabaseDatabase failover manager

   Contributing factor

   Change with a delayed effectMonitoring blind spotExcessive blast radiusHarmful manual actionUnverified assumptionOverlapping failures

   Detection

   Automated monitoring detected the failed election within a minute, and the team was alerted at 16:36 UTC. The second period was announced at 21:14 UTC by automated alerts that some shards in the cluster were unavailable.

   Remediation

   • Restarted all nodes of the database cluster, which forced a successful primary election
   • Updated the production configuration and restarted the database cluster's nodes
   • Ramped traffic back up, putting services for user-initiated API requests first

   Action items

   • Alert when nodes stop reporting their replication lag
   • Alert when a shard enters a state that could trigger the election fault
   • Work with the database maintainers on a fix for the underlying fault
   • Add circuit breaking on failed operations to particular database clusters
   • Use fault isolation to contain the impact of a single failed shard
   • Limit the resources used by clients that keep retrying failed requests
   • Add procedures and tooling that make rapid configuration changes during incident response safer

   View case
5. IL-0215 Twilio's billing Redis master lost all balances and went read-only, and auto-recharge charged customer cards repeatedly

   Twilio2013

   Symptoms

   At 2:39 AM PDT (9:39 UTC) on 18 July 2013, services that relied on the redis-master of Twilio's billing system began to fail because the load on its host had become extreme. At 2:42 AM PDT monitoring alerted the on-call engineers to a failure in the Redis cluster.

   Database overloadData lossWrites rejected

   Trigger

   At 1:35 AM PDT on 18 July a loss of network connectivity disconnected all billing redis-slaves from the redis-master at once, and all of them requested a full synchronization at the same time. On-call engineers then restarted the overloaded redis-master.

   Root cause

   Configuration change

   Component

   In-memory cacheDatabase replication

   Contributing factor

   Retry stormHarmful manual actionUnsafe failure behaviour

   Detection

   At 2:42 AM PDT monitoring alerted the on-call engineers to a failure in the Redis cluster. At 3:28 AM PDT the billing system monitoring reported the anomalous charges, and at 12:36 PM PDT monitoring detected the recurrence.

   Remediation

   • Restarted the redis-master to relieve the high load, which loaded a wrong configuration
   • Took the billing system offline to stop further credit card charges
   • Restored service to all suspended accounts
   • Restored the lost account balances from the independent double-bookkeeping record in the relational datastore
   • Took billing offline again after the recurrence and reactivated the newly suspended accounts
   • Refunded all erroneous credit card charges
   • Gave all affected accounts a credit of 10% of their last 30 days of spend
   • Replaced the original Redis cluster and corrected the redis-master configuration
   • Activated the billing system progressively for groups of customer accounts

   Action items

   • Disable Redis restarts on the redis-master and recover the master by pivoting a slave instead
   • Add fail-safes so the billing system neither suspends accounts nor charges cards when balances are missing or cannot be written
   • Validate the billing system against the double-bookkeeping databases in real time

   Lessons

   Losing the in-flight balances and the ability to write balances at the same time exposed a flaw in the auto-recharge system: it failed in a dangerous way, charging cards and suspending accounts instead of stopping.

   View case

By root cause5